Small Business vs Big Business - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 1988 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/09/21 Category Advertising Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Tags: Information Essay Did you like this example? Big Business Starts as Small Business Software to support a growing enterprise There are two certainties in life – death and taxes. While both are unavoidable, at least the taxes issue can be managed. But managing taxes, and business finances in general, takes detailed information. Considering how most small businesses get their start in accounting for their business operations, it is not surprising that information gathering becomes one of the most time -consuming and frustrating tasks around tax time. Fixing the problem from the beginning and keeping a system with the detailed data you need on an ongoing basis is the key to avoiding the rush and to building a business information framework that spans the life of the business entity. In order to understand how to solve the problem, it is important to understand the evolution of business accounting. Not how the concepts or practices have evolved, but how technology has (or has not) been applied to certain problems, and where the gaps are. Just starting out – the business in infancy The first things a new business owner generally does is get a business license, get a computer, and run down to the discount store to buy a copy of QuickBooks or maybe Microsoft Excel. Now, this business owner isn’t necessarily prepared to properly handle the accounting for the business, but he understands that he has to do something. Keeping a check register, at the minimum, lets him know how much money is in the bank. And that’s what it’s all about for the small business person – cash flow and cash availability. But the focus on the checkbook frequently causes the business to postpone implementing deeper, more beneficial processes. With a focus on the checkbook, the business manages cash by counting payments out and receipts in. But the nature of the payment or the receipt is the true question that must be answered and accounted for. It is surprising how many businesses sti ll keep ledger cards – those manual 35’s in a box where customer and vendor information is kept. It is a simple method, and provides the business a way to keep individual account records. But the fact that this detail information is not part of an integrated system creates a greater potential for lost or inaccurate data. Further, the greater the volume the more difficult and error-prone managing the information becomes.  © InsynQ, Inc. 2005 Page 1 of 5 Appgen Business Software It is at this point that the business seeks to find a more comprehensive means to manage the additional business data. This is another buying decision the business owner must m ake, introducing a new system which can handle the additional activities around accounts receivable, accounts payable, inventory and sales orders, etc. The business was already keeping track of products or services, customers and vendors. But here we are at a step where new systems and processes must be introduced . A belated effort, this after-the-fact implementation of customer, vendor and item tracking, establishes the means to manage more business activities as part of an integrated system. The difficulty comes in loading the historic information and learning new systems . Depending on volume, the quality of the manually-kept data, etc. , it may be determined that historic transaction details are not to be entered. So, the business moves forward with a better system for managing business activities and data, but loses the value of the early transaction detail. The next steps – handling volume and growth The business has implemented an accounting system which helps to keep track of customers, vendors, items, and cash. More detailed processes are introduced as the business requirement grows – offering perhaps more specific information on costs of certain products, or summaries of customer purchases or item sales activity. This data provides a much mo re informed basis for b usiness decision- making, but also impacts the systems as the volume of data to be managed grows. Growth may present itself in many ways – growth in the number of products or services offered, growth in the number of transactions processed regularly, growth in the dollar value of transactions, or growth in the number of employees who need access to the system. All of these areas impact the ability of the system to continue to support the business requirements. Quite frequently, a certain â€Å"density of data† is reached and the current system is not able to efficiently manipulate and manage the volume. Here again is another buying decision. Can the existing system be expanded to handle the additional volume? Or must a new system yet again be introduced? The business process requirements may not have changed, but the earlier choice of systems may cause a forced change simply due to business volume or number of users. The frustrations of changing business systems are compounded the further into the business lifecycle the change comes. Much of the historic intelligence of the business is derived from the earlier days of the business; data which reflects the stages and activities of the business over time. When a business reaches a point where data volumes force a systems change, a worst-case scenario occurs: The volume of historic data is too great for the current system, and loading it into a new system  © InsynQ, Inc. 2005 Page 2 of 5 Appgen Business Software takes a huge amount of time and effort. Unfortunately, this task often proves too daunting for the company, so again valuable historic detail information is lost and summary information is loaded into the new system. Operationally Specific Systems As the business matures – and in order for the business to mature in a healthy manner – specific and detailed information must be captured and analyzed. Systems which take a broad view of the business, offering only gene ral information and process support, frequently do not supply the business with the levels of intelligence truly required. For example, a manufacturing business needs to fully understand and manage the manufacturing processes and materials supply to ensure profitability and consistent product quality. A retailer needs to know which products sell in which markets in order to ensure product stock and availability to key ustomers. And all of this information is time-critical if the business is to make necessary adjustments in time to benefit from them. This level of detail can only come from a system which incorporates a certain specific orientation towards the operational processes of the business. The fact of selling a product to a customer is an activity which gets recorded, but the additional details of the customer location, pricing levels, purchasing levels, salesman, inventory item, and warehouse location tell the rest of the story. Over time, the business owner can then bett er understand customer purchasing habits, inventory item turnover, supplier dependencies a wealth of business intelligence. This data is then used to assist the business owner or management in determining the specific activities or actions necessary to keep the business moving forward and improving performance. In the end, it is the demonstration of well-defined processes, deep insight into the business operational metrics and financial performance, and the ability to effectively and accurately report on this information that creates a basis for proveable business value. There is One When looking at the business accounting and finance systems available in the market – particularly considering those which have earned a level of market share – there are visible gaps – big ones. This is clearly reflected in the numbers, where Intuit QuickBooks leads in the small business market, but has no reciprocal in the midrange or enterprise markets. QuickBooks fits into t hat early space, where the business is just starting out and, maybe, extending into keeping more detailed customer, vendor and item information. MS Excel is also a winner for very small and new businesses, as the spreadsheet is a simple and easy solution to creating an electronic check register. But there comes a point where a business has  © InsynQ, Inc. 2005 Page 3 of 5 Appgen Business Software requirements that extend beyond the ability of the small business software. Sometimes, the mere thought of change is so abhorrent (usually based on a bad initial implementation experience) that the business attempts to use the software far beyond what it was built to handle. Other application makers offer systems that have a number of small business features, but that also offer more in-depth or complex capabilities to handle the growing business. These systems, too (such as Peachtree, MAS2000, etc. ) have a great potential to be outgrown, and can be costly implementations which han dle only a portion of the business lifecycle. Larger, module-based systems (such as Great Plains, Oracle, etc. ) offer a broad range of functionality, integration, and data management capability. They typically address more – and more detailed business processes, and can scale to very large sizes. But the cost and complexity of these systems is often the barrier, and given that there is no clear seed product (small business version of the big business software), the upgrade path is unclear and problematic. Microsoft is seeking to impact this area, preparing to offer a small business accounting system which would in concept seed to the much larger Microsoft Business Solutions applications. Given the huge gap between the â€Å"typical† small business system and the upper-levels in the MBS catalogue – the transition from very small to very large is not likely to be made in the single step Microsoft may envision. Each stage of business requirement typically d rives to a buying decision. This buying decision is met with anxst, as considerations include not only cost, but data conversion vs re-loading, new process or system design and setup, user training, proofing the system (running parallel? ) and a host of other issues, not the least of which is the business benefit to be derived. All the anxst, the frustrations, and the repeated buying decisions can be avoided. There is a system which scales – from the very small business to the very large business – and that has been proven in high availability, high performance, large volume systems for over 25 years. And this system offers flexibility – ease of use for the new or small business user, a broad range of feature-rich and functionally powerful business and finance applications, and a comprehensive development tool to allow even the most complex business requirement be crafted as part of the system. And the best feature is the database – which grows with th e business throughout the business lifecycle. Information is power, and this system provides you with the ability to capture all your valuable business information from the inception of the business through growth and on to maturity.  © InsynQ, Inc. 2005 Page 4 of 5 Appgen Business Software The system is from Appgen. For the small business, it’s the MyBooks Professional system, offering a broad range of functionality within an easy-to-understand interface. Simple flowcharts help describe the accounting process, and assist new and novice users with effectively managing business activities within the system. As the business requirements increase, the MyBooks Pro suite of applications may be customized, or may be replaced with the full-featured modules from the Appgen Custom Suite of applications. The database is the same, however, so there is no loss of any level of data or detail. As the business needs more specific functionality to support its processes, the Appgen 4G L development system is used to make modifications to standard applications, or to create completely new customized applications, designed and suited for the unique and particular requirements of the business. Again, the database is the same, but may be extended to capture any number of additional data elements desired. Appgen offers the business a single buying decision: a single database; a clear application migration path; and a way to taylor the system to meet specific business needs. And for the cost, there is no comparable alternative. Visit www. Appgen. com and discover the only accounting system your business will ever need. Appgen Business Software Always-On Technologies, powered by InsynQ www. Appgen. com 866-206-1781  © InsynQ, Inc. 2005 Page 5 of 5 Appgen Business Software Don’t waste time! 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Essay about Idiot Nation - 886 Words

In â€Å"Idiot Nation,† Michael Moore discourses on the collapse of American education system and the three main reasons behind it: politicians’ ignorance, shortage of teachers, and the rise of Corporate America. Moore first points out how ignorant the President and politicians are by stating that the President cannot simply identify whether Africa is a nation or a continent. Next, Moore attributes the lack of funding in education to the fact that politicians prefer to build bomber than to improve our education system; this leads to shortage of resources, overpopulated classrooms, and decrease of books available for students. He then notes that the low salaries of teachers, which are caused by the insufficient funding of education, result in†¦show more content†¦Eisenhower’s nominee as ambassador to Ceylon,† being â€Å"unable to identify either the country’s prime minister or its capital during his Senate confirmation hearing† (130). Moore’s use of examples here not only helps elucidate his point, but also clearly supports his claim that American officials are ignorant. Thus, Moore’s strategy of using exemplification is successful both in clarifying his argument and convincing readers of his position. Throughout his excerpt, Moore also uses surprising statistics as an argumentative strategy to efficaciously deliver his message to readers and stimulate us to reflect on the point he brings out. For example, he uses some astonishing statistics to show us how people are wasting their time doing trivial things instead of learning and reading. He states that â€Å"[t]here are forty-four million Americans who cannot read and write above a fourth-grade level,† but in the meantime, a considerable number of people know sports and â€Å"can answer all thirty obscure trivia questions in less than 120 seconds† (129). Reading these surprising statistics can stimulate readers’ reactions and arouse them; readers will be surprised to find out that they are wasting so much time doing useless things and be impressed by the astounding result that they may reflect on how they use their time. As a result, Moore’s use of surprising statistics can effectively convey his messag e and stimulate readers to reflect on his point. A third strategy that Moore uses isShow MoreRelatedIdiot Nation Essay995 Words   |  4 Pagesurged to go on to college. This leads many people to believe that it will help our country reach the goal of becoming a smarter nation. However, in his essay Idiot Nation, Michael Moore argues that the exact opposite is occuring. We are becoming a nation full of idiots. Sadly, Michael Moore is correct. The majority of the people in this country are, indeed, idiots. This is due to the nation’s poor educational system and the people’s lack of gratitude and motivation. First of all, America’sRead MoreIdiot Nation : Draft 1 Essay1325 Words   |  6 PagesAndrew Romero Prof. Cathy Arellano ENGWR 300 Purple 28 September 2016 Idiot Nation: Draft 1 Across America, you d be hard pressed to find a person that doesnt agree that everyone should receive a free education. Because of this, most everyone goes to high school, or at the very least receives an equivalent education. However, after this free education is done, many high school graduates are pushed to continue their studies in colleges and universities. And while these facilities are believed toRead More`` Idiot Nation `` By Michael Moore1591 Words   |  7 Pagesthere could be a spokesperson for criticizing American politicians, the educational system, globalization, large corporations, the war in Iraq, and many other debatable issues, American author of â€Å"Idiot Nation†, Michael Moore would be the ideal candidate. In this piece, Moore argues that America is a nation built upon a clueless, illiterate society of people, a sub-par educational system, and manipulative corporations. All which are governed by brainless politicians. Moore effectively creates his argum entRead MoreThe, Idiot Nation, By Michael Moore1421 Words   |  6 Pagespublications who spread the idiocy of these politicians, and influences the American people to buy into their idiocy and elect and re-elect more idiots into power, keeping the American people ignorant and stupid. In Michael Moore’s article, â€Å"Idiot Nation,† he presents us with several high-ranking officials, throughout America’s history, who represented us as a nation despite an acute lack of knowledge for the positions there were to hold: Maxwell Gluck, ambassador to Ceylon in 1956, William Clark, deputyRead MoreIdiot Nation By John Taylor Gatto1537 Words   |  7 Pagesas technology and health care or education, but compared with other develop nations, the united states education system is still behind many country including United Kingdom, Japan, China. America’s standards of education are far lower than several other countries, because the American public education systems is less effective, students are lack of motivation to learn. According to Michael Moore, in the book Idiot Nation, and John Taylor Gatto in Against School, they argue that the education systemRead MoreSummary Of Michael Moores Idiot Nation978 Words   |  4 Pagesin his popular essay, â€Å"Idiot Nation† that comes from the book Stupid White Men and other Sorry Excuses for the State of the Nation, discourses on how our political system, lifestyles, and technology are the reason for our countrys becoming so idiotic. Nevertheless, he believes that the educational system is suffering the most. Moore accentuates how ignorant the President and politicians are by stating that the President cannot simply identify whether Africa is a nation or a continent. Moore seesRead MoreIdiot Nation, Michael Moore, Critical Essay Critique1280 Words   |  6 PagesCritical Essay In Rereading America an excerpt by Michael Moore entitled â€Å"Idiot Nation† focuses on the collapsing educational system in the United States of America. 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Bush1922 Words   |  8 Pagesone of the most controversial presidents in history and prompted some of the loudest outcries from the public. The music world became very involved in this particular fight, many artists from multiple generations and genres protested Bush. American Idiot by Green Day is one of the best examples and the most well-known protest of Bush and his administration. However, despite its popularity and acclaim it did receive a lot of criticism. Going against such a powerful and influential person in societyRead MoreProblems and Aspirations of Youth as Highlighted in the Novels of Chetan Bhagat5079 Words   |  21 Pagesadapted into a movie called ‘3 Idiots’, though Bhagat has stated that he was not involved in the scriptwriting in anyway, and was involved in a controversy with the director and the producer of the movie over crediting his contribution to the script. Directed by Raj Kumar Hirani, and starring Aamir Khan, R. Madhvan, Sharman Joshi, Kareena Kapoor, and Boman Irani in pivotal roles, it was released on 25 December, 2009. About a week after the release of the movie, ‘3 Idiots’, Chetan Bhagat claimed for

Ventria Bioscience free essay sample

Bioscience and the Controversy over Plant-Made Medicines In this paper I am writing on the Ventria Bioscience and the Controversy over Plant-Made Medicines Case. Ventria Bioscience is a company that is trying to commercialize pharmaceuticals made from genetically modified plants. While Ventria is gaining opposition from regulators, activist, and environmentalist; they could succeed if they use their relevant stakeholders and specific strategies, information, financial incentive, constituency building, to influence regulators. There are many groups that have a stake in Ventria’s action. There are some stakeholders that hold a lower salience such as, the environmentalist, consumer advocates, and food-safety activist. Which are, Friends of the Earth, and Environmental of California. As far as market stakeholders involved with Ventria, you have the rice industry, including rice farmers and producers. These groups are apart of the market in which Ventria wants to enter into. Rice farmers can be a family owned business, whereas, rice mills tend to be owned by larger organizations such as: Agribusiness giants, ADM, Far West Rice, Pacific International, and Sun West. The public is a market because they are going to be customers for Ventria’s product. However, there are most prominent stakeholders that each have a specific interest and source of power. Beginning with non-market, Ventria has a lot of regulations to abide by; for example, the FDA, EPA, and USDA regulation. Ventria needs all three of these regulatory approvals if they even want their business to evolve. The FDA is responsible for the safety and effectiveness of food and medicines. The EPA is responsible for the environmental safety of food crops that are genetically engineered. As for the USDA, they have oversight of genetically modified crops that are being tested in fields. Given that Ventria wants to grow their crops in California, they have to be aware of the CRC, California Rice Commission. The CRC is appointed under the Rice Certification Act to review any varieties of rice, to ensure the production and milling of rice is done with a public interest. These stakeholders are standing in the way of Ventria’s attempt to solve malnutrition. For the market stakeholders it begins with Scott Deeter, president and CEO of Ventria Bioscience, he built the company, analyzing proteins and coming up with ideas. Then you have Dr. Raymond Rodriguez, he is a molecular biologist that founded Ventria Bioscience. He approached Dr. William Rutter, founder and chairmen of the biotechnology firm Chiron, to become an investor in the company. As the company progressed, Dr. Rodriguez built a board of directors of biotech leaders and seasoned entrepreneurs. This included Dr. William Rutter and Dr. Pablo Venezuela. William H. Rutter, an attorney and venture capitalist. Ron Vogal, and bio-entrepreneur Dr. Robert Crea. Later recruited to the board were Thomas N. Urban, Melvin Booth, and David Dwayer. Together these board members and their organizations provide 85 percent of financing for the company. If these relevant stakeholders were to have a dialogue, many opinions on how to reestablish the company’s protocol would be said. Specifically, strategies how to get pass the regulation issues and gain the approval of different advocates. They will need to figure out a way to address their potential risk. Environmental and consumer groups feel as though Ventria will contaminate other rice crops. If GM crops were to contaminate other crops, California will be at risk of losing Japanese exports. They would have to talk to their research and development team to deal with the risk, and where money should be spent in doing so. The board of directors may come up with the option of growing the crop in another country opposed to California. This would be a good way to ensure non-contamination, and eliminate the risk of â€Å"super weeds† being produced in California. It will also eliminate the regulation from the CRC. This could gain activist and environmentalist approval, since those were their main arguments. Another opinion may come up to write an appeal to congress. Explaining to them how they can reduce harm in countries, from the benefits of their pharmaceutical. This would put pressure on congress or even regulators to change their mind. Like the Tobacco case, regulators intervened to help the citizens. Regulators are doing this to Ventria to protect citizens from possible health issues and the environment from harm. If Ventria wants to influence relevant regulators they can go about it in three different ways. However, I feel two of the three strategies will benefit the company most. They can do an information strategy. Ventria can provide the government and policy makers with information to influence their actions. They could hire a lobbyist that would be aware of the regulations and developments that may affect the company. This representative would communicate and persuade an organizations support as they consider a particular regulation. For example, Ventria could explain their case to the CRC. They would provide information explaining their objective and express the benefits that can come from their product. If the CRC is aware that this medicine can help with malnutrition, dehydration, and diarrhea they would understand the benefits. These factors could help a lot of countries that suffer from hunger. Ventria can also have some of their CEO’s give a testimony to regulators and organizations. Given that all of them have been involved with biotechnology to some degree, they will be able to provide a great amount of facts. They can provide data to educate and influence regulators to better understand their objective. Ventria can also promote a Constituency-Building strategy. They will seek support from organizations or people who are also affected by the public policy. Reading the Coca-Cola case, citizens of India felt as though Coke had money so they could do what they want. Coca-Cola became aware that they needed to create sustainable communities or consumers wont use their product. Ventria needs to enhance groups to meet their objectives. They need to reach out to them and clarify the safety of their project and the benefits from it. This will gain their support, thus allowing Ventria to have a greater influence on regulators once they see the approval of many groups.

How are women represented in The Winters Tale Essay Example For Students

How are women represented in The Winters Tale Essay The Winters Tale is a sixteenth-century comedy of William Shakespeares containing many possibilities of a tragedy occurring throughout the play, such as when Hermione dies and Perdita is left in an unpopulated area. The various female characters representations are significant for the plot. More importantly, with the exception of Paulina, they are portrayed as being passive, obedient characters who are inferior to their male counterparts. A modern-day audience would perhaps disagree with the oppression of women evident within this play, but in the cultural context of Shakespeares society, women were inferior to men and subsequently expected to obey them without question. The character of Paulina, however, is welcomed by the modern audience as being a more modern character who defends the rights of women, for example Hermione and the abandoning of Perdita. At the time Shakespeare wrote the play, women, more specifically Mary and Elizabeth I, had held the position of monarch in England and it is possible to suggest Paulina is the personification of a new contemporary idea of a female. Paulina, is portrayed as being very strong emotionally, as she is willing to stand up to Leontes and make him see his own faults, but she could also be considered extremely cruel for the emotional punishment and torture she inflicts on Leontes during the sixteen years that he is without Hermione. Paulina also manages to convince the male characters that Hermione is innocent, indicating a reasonable degree of power. Leontes insults anybody who agrees with Paulina or, more importantly, anybody who disagrees with him, for example, Antigonus, who is Paulinas husband. Shakespeares portrayal of Leontes, who has a low opinion of the women in the play, reflects predominant contemporary male attitudes. His statement to Antigonus regarding Paulina shows that he expects the man to be dominant, What? Canst not rule her? Hermione is the opposite of Paulina as she appears to be very weak, always forgiving Leontes, but she is perhaps stronger than Paulina as she is willing to accept her oppression and remain dignified throughout. Upon being accused of adultery with Polixenes by Leontes, Hermione is given the simple reply, No, by my life, Privy to none of this. This is a highly ironic statement. Leontes has condemned Hermione to death and Hermione is swearing on her life that she is innocent. The effect of this irony is a reinforcement of Hermiones innocence, showing Leontes to be an unreasonable, jealous tyrant. This technique employed by Shakespeare is illustrating a clear division between which of the characters upon stage we are to support in the court case. It is certainly possible that Shakespeare based the character of Hermione on the medieval idea of female Patience. Female Patience is a concept that women will allow themselves to suffer in order to please their husbands. For example, patient Griselda from the Clerks Tale by Geoffrey Chaucer shows this virtue. Hermione is portrayed as being a forgiving, obedient lady who will forever remain loyal to Leontes, similarly to Griselda. Another response of Hermiones while she is on trial is: The emperor of Russia was my father. This ironic statement would likely cause a contemporary Shakespearean audience, or a modern audience to feel more sympathy for Hermione, as her calmness and unexpected argument with her husband convince us that she has done no wrong. Although her father is powerful, she is weak and defenseless, creating a form of irony. Also, Shakespeare is showing that Hermione hails from an honourable family. However, although it is admirable that Hermione manages to remain calm even during this traumatic time, with the way Leontes has been treating her there is a feeling amongst a modern audience that Hermione should not be so calm and should perhaps let Leontes know exactly what she thinks of him and his actions, as women would be more likely to do during recent times. However, her silence would have been considered virtuous by a contemporary audience, creating a high level of respect between the character and its audience. The audience is led to believe that, although Hermione has won the case with the Oracle, Leontes has won the battle when Hermione faints, apparently to die. This is perhaps Shakespeares most literal display of Hermiones character as although she appears strong and dignified on the outside, on the inside she is weak, which is shown by Hermione fainting to her apparent death. The death of Hermiones son, Mamillius, is also a large factor in Hermiones death. Hermione was very protective of Mamillius; feeling that Leontess allegations against her would have a detrimental effect on his reputation. Using your analysis of Shakespeare's text, suggest ways in which act 3 scene 5 of Romeo and Juliet could be performed EssayTime as a healer is a main theme of the play. Shakespeares effect of the sixteen-year gap on stage emphasises the fantastical nature of the play. Despite the obvious potential for a tragedy within this play, the supernatural re-birth of Hermione by the end is likely Shakespeares distinction between comedy and tragedy. I also disagree that the final scene balances this fact as although they are reunited, gain Perdita as a daughter and Florizel as a son-in-law, they will never be able to replace their son and heir to the throne, Mamillius, as he is and will always be dead. No matter how much Leontes repents for his sins, Mamillius cannot be brought back. Leontes matching of Paulina and Camillo might also seem joyful in theory, but these two are not in love and matching them up is simply a demonstration of Leontes power returning to him. In fairness to Leontes, he may not intentionally be controlling Paulina and may have paired Paulina off with Camillo to give her a good, worthy husband. The union of Paulina and Camillo could also be a sign of nature taking its course, as marriage is viewed as a natural union. The reconciliation of Hermione and Leontes could also be deemed as natural. However, this first criticism is definitely accurate in that the last scene cannot possibly excuse Leontes previous actions towards Hermione. Hermione is always willing to take back Leontes no matter what sins he has committed, but Leontes is not willing to forgive Hermione for sins that she is not even guilty of. Hermione is the stronger character of the two as a result of this. It is possible that Shakespeare has intended to portray the females as emotionally-stronger characters as a way of ridiculing the male attitude towards females during this time. However, Queen Elizabeth I was recognised as a dominant and powerful ruler, which Queen Hermione was not. Queen Elizabeth was never married and subsequently not the subject of any oppression, but Hermione was oppressed by her husband. This could be a suggestion by Shakespeare that if men had listened to women more and treated them as equals, perhaps Leontes would not have enraged himself to such a degree over Hermione and Polixenes friendship. Hermione does exactly what is asked of her by Leontes and is accused of adultery for it. Women were vastly underappreciated by men back in the 16th century and The Winters Tale illustrates this perfectly. One critic has suggested that, The action of the play is to repair the damage caused by Leontes jealousy, however, Camillo flees, Hermione endures, and Paulina, though she criticizes the king, will eventually restore his wife to him. However, Leontes areas of power are shared between the various female characters within the play and this gives the impression that Leontes has lost control and makes the audience feel that the women are in power rather than Leontes. As soon as Leontes loses Hermione and Mamillius he becomes vulnerable and Hermione and Paulina capitalise on this more than anyone. However, Leontes does have the final say as, although Paulina would like for Leontes to wait for her permission before marrying again, he is under no real obligation to do so and can just as easily refuse as accept her proposal. His intense vulnerability is what causes him to give in to Paulina. In conclusion, it could be argued that women are presented as being worthy of more power than they actually possess. In the cases of Paulina and Hermione, the two characters are extremely sensible and know how their roles are limited by the laws of Sicilia. Shakespeare asks the contemporary audience to respect these women and support them over jealous tyrants such as Leontes. I believe that Shakespeares addition of these characters shows that he believes that despite being expected to be the calm, calculating characters, men can often get out of control and this is ironic as it is not expected of them but it can often happen anyway. The undervaluing of women could be a mistake as they, like Paulina and Hermione, have plenty of intelligence to offer.

A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs Essay Example

A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs Essay A sample of 90 local authorities has been used. Both statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 17 and Excel have been used to determine the level of environmental conservation costs in the studied local authorities. The results indicated that there was a wide use of environmental conservation costs among the local authorities. The study provides preliminary evidence on environmental conservation costs used by local authorities in Kenya. Further research is suggested to explore the possible motivating factors among different local authorities’ degree of application and level of environmental costs in different activities. Keywords: Environmental Conservation; Local authorities; Environmental costs  © 2013 Published by SSBFNET 1. Introduction This paper investigates the environmental conservat? on costs by local authorities in Kenya. Environmental conservation cost refers to the investment and costs measured in monetary values, allocated for prevention, reduction, and or avoidance of environmental impact, removal of such impact, restoration following the occurrences of a disaster and other activities. These are costs borne by companies and organizations for environmental conservation i. e. private costs. The costs do not include costs borne for health damage or environmental pollution suffered by third parties or society as a whole resulting from the business activities of companies and other organizations i. e. social costs. It means the burden placed upon society as a result of the environmental impact of a specific company or other organizations, or of an unspecified entity. We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Social cost is also referred to as â€Å"external cost† or â€Å"external discovery† such as damage suffered by a third party or damage caused to forests or agriculture due to environmental impact resulting from the business activities of a company or other organization will not result in a direct economic burden for that company provided that there is no proof of causal relationship but the society as a whole may be considered to have sustained a loss Medley (1997). Environmental conservation cost can be categorized into one, business area costs which are costs for activities to reduce environmental impact which occur within the business area due to key business operations. The business area is the region where the organization can directly manage environmental impacts. Business area cost is associated with environmental conservation is divided into pollution prevention cost, global environmental cost and resource recycling cost. Secondly, administration cost which is the cost for management activities conducted by companies and other organizations for environmental conservation activities. The cost includes the cost for efforts that directly contribute to reducing the environmental impact generated through business activities, and the cost for efforts for communication a Corresponding author. Kilika Samuel, Tel. : +020 086 808. 89 Kilika Mutua /International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Vol 2, No 3, 2013 ISSN: 2147-4486 ith society by companies and other organizations, like the cost for environmental training for employees, cost for environmental improvement activities such as nature conservation, greening, and beautification. Thirdly, environmental remediation costs. These are costs allocated for recovery of the environmental degradation due to business activities like the cost to restore natural environment back to its original state, provision or insurance fees to cover degradation to the environm ent. Fourth, ocial activity cost which is a cost related to environmental conservation conducted for the good of the broad range of society Gulch (2000). This is considered a cost for environmental conservation efforts consisting of social activities with no direct relationship to the business activities of the company or other organizations like cost for environmental activities like planting of greenery, beautification and landscape preservation. Fifth is the RD cost which constitutes spending for research and development activities allocated to environmental conservation. Lastly are the upstream/ downstream costs. Upstream cost is a cost for efforts to reduce the environmental impact that is created prior to the input of goods and services into business areas, as well as the cost related to such efforts i. e. provision of materials for goods and services. Downstream cost is a cost for efforts to reduce the environmental impact that is created after goods and services have been output from business areas, as well as the cost related to such efforts i. e. se and consumption of goods and services Medley (1997). The study seeks to determine environmental costs by local authorities in Kenya. The study acts as an exploratory on environmental accounting forming a basis for further research and illustrate important findings for the groups including the local authorities in Kenya and the stakeholders of local authorities like consumers of their services, business partners, investors, employees of particular local authorities and the residents. The local authorities can be able to establish the benefits they get from environment conservation as well as the costs of undertaking environmental activities, tuture researchers, local government of Kenya as well as other scholars. 2. Literature Review The section presents both theoretical (untested) as well as empirical (tested) literature relevant to the subject of study. Accounting for environmental costs and performance can support a company’s / organization’s development and operation of an overall environmental management system. Understanding the environmental costs and performance of processes and products can promote more accurate costing and pricing of products and can aid organizations in the design of more environmentally preferable processes, products and services for the future. Better management of environmental costs can result in improved environmental performance and significant benefits to human health as well as business success. The disclosure of environmental accounting regarding nvironmental conservation activities of companies and other organizations, including public interest organizations and local public entities, provides a means for stakeholders to understand, evaluate, and give their support to such efforts. Environmental accounting continues to take root as part of the social system. Taking into account, developments in environmental accounting at companies and other organizations, it has the objective of supporting the introduction and implementation of environmental accounting at co mpanies and other organizations. Environmental accounting is also intended to insure that the information disclosed takes into consideration the needs of the various stakeholders. Another objective is to improve the effectiveness of environmental accounting methodology, so that by employing given guidelines in organizing environmental accounting data, companies and other organizations can monitor their data not only for publication, but also further their objective of internal environmental management (Bailey, 1991). The quantitative management of environmental conservation activities is an effective way of achieving and maintaining sound business management. In other words, in carrying out environmental conservation activities, a company or other organizations can accurately identify and measure investments and costs related to environmental conservation activities, and can prepare and analyze this data. By having better insight into the potential benefits of these investments and costs, the company can not only improve the efficiency of its activities, but also utilize environmental accounting as a discipline which plays a very important role in supporting rational decision-making. In addition, companies and other organizations are required to have accountability to stakeholders, such as consumers, business partners, investors, employees, local residents, and administration, when utilizing environmental resources, i. e. public goods, for their business activities. Disclosure of environmental accounting information is a key process in performing accountability. Consequently, environmental accounting helps companies and other organizations boost their public trust and confidence and are associated with receiving a fair assessment (Lehman, 2000). The functions of environmental accounting are divided into internal and external functions. As one step of an organization’s environmental information system, internal function makes it possible to manage environmental conservation cost and analyze the cost of environmental conservation activities versus the benefit obtained, and promotes effective and 90 Kilika Mutua /International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Vol 2, No 3, 2013 ISSN: 2147-4486 fficient environmental conservation activities through suitable decision-making. It is desirable for environmental accounting to function as a business management tool for use by managers and related business units. On the other hand, by disclosing the quantitatively measured results of its environmental conservation activities, external functions allow an organization to influence the decision-making of stakeholders, such as consumers, business partners, investors, local residents, and administration. It is hoped that the publication of environmental accounting results will function both as a means for organizations to fulfill their responsibility for accountability to stakeholders and, simultaneously, as a means for appropriate evaluation of environmental conservation activities (Lehman, 2000). Local authorities in Kenya are the bodies controlling local governance in Kenya. Local Authorities in Kenya are governed by the local government Act cap 265 laws of Kenya. Kenya has 175 local authorities which are categorized into city councils, town councils, municipal councils and county councils. The Act spells out wide ranging powers and functions for local authorities, where most of these functions undertaken by the local authorities relate to provision of public services, promotion of good governance and simulation of good economic growth. The functions and responsibilities cover basic services such as markets, garbage collection, street lighting maintenance, development planning, roads, sewerage, community welfare, slaughterhouses and burial of destitute people. There are also provisions of health to the community through health centers as well as dispensaries. Besides health facilities the council provides housing, schools and recreational facilities and maintenance of parks (Local government Act caps 265 laws of Kenya). Local authorities get their funding from the local authorities transfer fund (LATF) which is a block grant that transfers 5% of the national income to the local authorities. It distribution is ksh 1. 5 million to each of the 175 local authorities in Kenya (per annum). This is 60% in proportion to the total population of each local authority, 40% in proportion to the urban population of each local authority. The second source of funds is road maintenance levy fund (RMLF) which is collected from fuel levy on petroleum products and transit toll collections. The third source of funds is the contribution in lieu of rates (CILOR) which a local tax levied on property like land by the local authority as authorized by the central government . MLG Circular (2009). Mazhindu (2009) in his study on local government processes and the environment in Africa stated that by and large, the conventional planning approaches have either ignored or underestimated the growing environmental concerns. The search for planning responses to the devastating environmental concerns has culminated in the assembly of an ‘environmental tool box’ containing an assortment of instruments notably, po llution control and licensing, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), natural resource management plans and environmental auditing. Most of these instruments are quasi-planning in nature normally deployed to complement the conventional land–use planning tools but largely outside the traditional planning practice. This points out that, in the mainstream planning activities, the emerging environmental management specialisations have increasingly drifted apart theoretically, legally, administratively and in their specific responses to environmental problems. The irony of this compartmentalization is that urban planning largely grew out of the pragmatic concerns for the health of citizens and their social well-being in the wake of the industrializing cities of the nineteenth century. The growing magnitude of the negative environmental concerns impacting sustainable urban development must be redressed by ‘operationalising’ the symbiotic relationships between urban development and environmental management through the application of the relevant planning instruments. In the study by Kapa (2005) on Lesotho’s local government system, he stated that there was need for control of natural resources like sand and stones as well as environmental protection like pollution land/site allocation, water supply and market provision. Indecon (2005) in the review of local government financing in Ireland, stated that environmental protection expenditure was 695. 2 million which was 19. 2% of the total expenditure for 2004 and that water supply and sewerage consumed 450. 6 million which was 12. % of the total expenditure giving evidence that governments are responding to environmental challenges. Local studies on environment accounting have been done. UNDP (2000) on its study on millennium development goals in Kenya stated that the current needs assessment recommended that it would take ksh 97,126,500 to develop and implement a strategy for integrating principles and practices of environmental accounting within and /or alongside the system of national acco unting (SNA) even if on a pilot basis. Ministry of youth affairs (2010) on environmental and social management framework (ESMF) stated that one of the key environmental and social issues in Kenya is health and environment and further explains that most of the urban areas in Kenya are faced by domestic waste and sewage management problems with only 32 out of the 175 local authorities having any form of sewage collection and disposal infrastructure. Nema (2005) in its strategic plan for 2005-2010 stated that there was lack of sewerage system and facilities for 143 out of 175 local authorities which led to increased cases of environmental health problems due to 1 Kilika Mutua /International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Vol 2, No 3, 2013 ISSN: 2147-4486 pollution of the ecosystem by heavy metals and chemicals such as nitrates. Waema and Mitullah (2007) in their study on e-governance in local authorities in Kenya stated that the LAIFOMS is limited to financial management and has only three main components, revenues, bu dgeting and financial management and expenditure, a study that fails to mention environmental accounting issues. According to Kibeti (2004), Environmental costs are obscured in conventional accounts and yet they are real costs that should be accommodated by all firms and industries. Management of the environmental costs will result in improved environment, production and generally wealth of the urban population in the study area. This study would also argue for a clearer policy of the management of extractive industries and any other industry that largely tends to exploit natural resources. This will also contribute to the sustainability of the growth and development of not only the urban regions but also the rural. Being a pioneering study on one of the industries in an urban centre, other studies covering the various industries and regions will be encouraged. It is the ultimate purpose of this study to have other studies expanded to include all firms and sectors in the economy. To arrive at aggregates for the whole economy it is important to begin with the microeconomic production units. In his studies Hassan (1996) stated that in the coming decades, the continued urban population growth and especially the continued growth of the urban poor was expected to immensely challenge global sustainability. As at 2001, there were 43 cities in Africa with populations of more than one million and it is expected to increase to almost 70 by 2015 (UNPD, 2001). Nakuru would be among these cities. More problems of overcrowding, informal settlements, inadequate housing, poor infrastructure etc. are bound to increase. Infrastructural development has been slow in keeping pace with burgeoning needs of the urban population. Since most urban environmental problems result from poor management, poor planning and absence of coherent urban policies (Hassan, 1996); it is important that these dimensions be addressed in all sectors of the urban domain. Another study by Hassan (2003) stated that the conventional national accounting systems, excludes: domestic production; products directly extracted from communal resources for household consumption and not traded in the market, and; benefits from ecological services, cultural, aesthetic, etc. Though GDP included income from extracted resources corresponding value of these assets lost to the economy was omitted. Depletion of natural and human capital was excluded from total national wealth of a nation and hence the measures of economic performance were wrong and misleading. Daly (1996) explained clearly that sustainable development sought to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations. In other words, the present generation must leave the air, water and natural resources as pure and unpolluted as when it found it. Strong sustainability clarifies that in the case of renewable resources annual off-take must be kept equal to the annual growth increment while in the case of nonrenewals depletion should be at a rate equal to the development of renewal substitutes. That meant that stock of natural capital should not be reduced below a level that generated sustained yield unless good substitutes were then available. Hassan (2003) stated that sustainable development therefore, had to be financed in such a manner as to compensate for future depletion of exhaustible resources. He gave the example where policies had ensured sustainability from mining in South Africa, where the capital component (CC) was fully reinvested in alternative forms of capital Hassan (2002). According to Dasgupta and Maler, the correct index of checking if development is sustainable is wealth. When accounting prices that reflect trade-offs among present and future well-beings and among contemporaries are used to determine well-being, wealth becomes a good index for showing whether development is sustainable or not. Poverty causes a society to elk out living through adverse exploitation of resources and this is the state of the populations in the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) (Dasgupta Maler, 1995). Accounting for externalities has been adopted in the microeconomic level within the firm in hydroelectricity (EPA, 1996), health sector (EPA, 2000), chemical and oil companies (EPA, 1997a) and electroplating operations (EPA, 1997b) among others. The studies sampled, applied various environmental accounting techniques to evaluate environmental costs of economic activities in an industry. The results showed existence of positive environmental costs in all cases with an implication that most economics activities have environmental costs which are yet to be accounted for. Nema (2005), in its report stated that there were challenges that led to unsuitable management practices of ecosystems and their inherent biodiversity. Increased slum settlement in urban areas due to rapid rural-urban migration resulting in environmental problems of overcrowding, poor garbage disposal and environmental diseases like cholera, dysentery and typhoid. Kisare (1999) in his studies on local government planning and management stated that there were increased environmental pollution and degradations resulting from uncontrolled industrial smoke-emissions, discharge of untreated industrial effluent into rivers, dumping of toxic waste and deforestation of peri-urban woodlands. 2 Kilika Mutua /International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Vol 2, No 3, 2013 ISSN: 2147-4486 In the annual report by the ministry of petroleum, the Egyptian general petroleum corporation(2000) stated that natural resource damages is a new category of environmental liability which had been established in the United States according to a number of regulatory such as the clean water Act and the oil pollution Act. Such resources include flora, fauna, land, air, and water resources. The liability can arise from accidental release as well as lawful release to air, water, and soil. As a result there was a wide range of environmental expenditures such as abatement costs, elimination costs and handling of waste costs just to mention but a few, as well as environmental capital expenditures as a result of buying a new and/ or new cleaner technology. Goals such as environmental costs optimization, better environmental performance, identifying the true (full) costs and identifying the social costs all require knowing the different current and potential costs. However the study further stated that knowing the environmental costs depended upon the organizational purpose for using such data like cost allocation, capital budgeting, product design and all that managerial decisions . he report ends by stating that the domain and scope of applying the costs if sometimes to be vague whether the costs are environmental or not. SETAC (1993) on its report on a multi-disciplinary approach to solving problems of the impact of chemicals and technology in the environment stated that some companies were paying a significant portion of their total environmental costs to clean up pollution caused decades before like remediation costs related to superfund only being incurred by then but pertained of decades before that time. Due to the fact that the corporate environmental expenditures being often substantial, including them in the product costs affected the profitability of the products, facilities and divisions. Many companies according to the report include current operating costs pertaining to past environmental liabilities in their current product costs with the justification ,other expenses that created future benefits were charged to product costs or corporate overhead, including product development,reseach and development, and advertising expenses. Thus, current products benefited from those prior expenditures and the product costs must bear the costs related to prior production, just as it reaps the benefits. Therefore, from the above studies it is apparent that organizations are involved in environmental conservation costs and local authorities in Kenya are such kind of organizations that have both direct and indirect interactions with the immediate environment, thus, local authorities must incur environmental conservation costs. The studies point out that there is need to find out the various environmental conservation costs local authorities in Kenya go through. 2. 1 Accounting Theory The accounting theory has evolved through a long passage of time during which substantial changes in human behavior and market structures have taken place. The theory outlines how accountants have identified certain broad assumptions on which financial results of a business are prepared . These assumptions are called accounting concepts which define the rules under which financial statements of an entity should be prepared. The theory brings out boundary rules like entity, periodicity and going concern concepts to determine what should and should not be reported. Once the boundary is set, it should then determine how the accounting data should be recorded i. e. money measurement, historical cost, realization accruals, matching, duality and materiality. The theory limits the room for individual maneuvers, a number of ethical rules like prudence, consistence and objectivity have evolved, which suggest that there is a moral dimension in financial reporting. . 1. 1 Green budgeting theory (in Environmental accounting in local government) It is by initiative of the local Agenda 21 (LA21), after the Rio summit (1992) and the Johannesburg summit (2002) that schemes of environmental accounting at sub-national levels of government started to be developed: a bottom-up approach. , source of a large diversity of initiatives, in contrast to the top-down approach followed by nationals statistics offices coordinated, i n addition, by supranational organizations such as the United Nations and Eurostat. Amidst the consequent fragmentation of local experiences, the only exception is the EcoBudget scheme, promoted by the International Council for Environmental Initiative (ICLEI), which has been implemented in more or less the same form by a few local governments in several countries. Its basic idea is to implement a budgeting system for natural resources that conforms to the community financial budgeting: the current institutions and procedures must provide the model for the budgeting of natural resources. It s based on environmental indicators and as such it does not aim to provide a monetary evaluation of the environment, or to maintain long term, detailed and systematic accounts to be used in policy design and programming. Rather, its purpose is to help monitoring the effectiveness of local governments in achieving the set targets in matter of environmental policy, and communicating objectives, achievements or failures between policy makers and citizens. In principle, the objective could be more ambitious: inserting environmental issues on the political agenda not in an ad hoc manner but rather as systematic reporting to the 3 Kilika Mutua /International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Vol 2, No 3, 2013 ISSN: 2147-4486 city/local council. The environmental master budget should confront the highest council decision-making committee with environmental and sustainable development issues. Local authorities should be able to predict, plan, control, monitor and report the consumption of natural resources, as part of their environmental management activities as called by the Aalborg Charter (1994), the Lisbon Action Plan (1996) and the Hanover Conference (2000). However, for these reasons, the potential of environmental accounting as an aid to economic programming and decision making, in general and at the local level in particular, is still largely underutilized. One of the features of environmental budgeting, as has been implemented, is flexibility in the choice of indicators a choice that reflects, case by case, the interests and criticalities of specific local jurisdictions. It is in urban and suburban contexts, particularly, that the requirement of flexibility in resorting to the appropriate indicators in stronger . n the one hand, composing the menu of indicators in response to specific geographical and social context may appear sensible and pragmatic choice. On the other hand, it is difficult to set up a real, consistent accounting system over time when local governments’ priorities and programs change, because the indicators will also change as a consequence. 2. 1. 2 Environmental accounting used to estimate optimal extractio n levels for quarries: a case of Nakuru municipality. The common aggregate measures of economic performance include Gross Domestic Product (GDP), National Income (NI) and level of employment. However, these indicators ignore natural resources and environmental factors. Though resources and the environment as a whole is not included in the National accounts, changes in the two items contribute to production and income; and must therefore be accounted for. The welfare of the nation’s population present and more especially in the future will be greatly determined by the stock of natural resources available and the quality of environment. Currently, the production processes generally degrades the environments and depletes natural resources. This implies that the system of national accounting used, seriously under-estimates changes in the stock of natural resources and the environment of a nation Kibet (2004). 2. 1. 3 The Green Towns Environmental Project The project was carried out with its objective to initiate a process of environmental awareness among local authority managers, decision makers and the public so as to come out with an environmental development plan of a given town. The project also does the planning on community participation basis. Towns like Malindi and Eldoret are examples of places where the projects have been applied successfully (Kisare 1999). 2. 1. 4 Current environmental issues on air pollution According to JICA (2002) report on Kenya’s profile on the environment, air pollution is not monitored at specific sites, and there are no data on the calculation of annual pollutant emissions. However, from various studies carried out in some parts of the country, air pollution has serious impacts on the environment and health of Kenyan populace. According to these studies, the main air pollutants in major cities such as Nairobi , Mombasa , Nakuru, Eldoret, Thika and other small ones like Webuye, Kikuyu and Limuru just to mention but a few are the suspended particulate matter (SPM), Lead oxide of sulphur , carbon monoxide, hydrogen and oxides of nitrogen. There are no set standards for most of these pollutants. But studies show that levels of some of these pollutants in some towns far exceed the WHO or other international standards. 2. 1. The Contingency theory This approach advocates that there is no one ‘best’ design for a management accounting information system, but that â€Å"it all depends† upon the situational factors (Drury 2004, page 696). Headquarters and business units respond upon the business environment and settle their Management Accounting System. Headquarters delegate responsibilities to the BU-managers. Based upon these responsibilities, and the corporate characteristics, the BU-managers set their demand for information from their BU-controllers, and adjust their demand for information to their own business unit characteristics. This demand for information is sent to the BU-controller. As the literature on role theory indicates , â€Å"role† is a useful tool for examination of the position of the controller as it links three central concepts: role expectations ( what the BU-manager and BU-controller believe he should do); role behavior ( what he actually does ) and how is position is linked to others, thus shaping his â€Å"role set† (Gross et al. 1958 ). Shaping his role set, is answering the question: why do BU-controllers behave in a certain way? Role theorists may say they share expectations for their own behavior and that of others (Biddle 1972 page 115). Thus BU-controllers â€Å"expect† that BUmanagers want to have a bonus and they â€Å"expect† that the corporate controllers want to receive the proper information of business unit performance. There could be a gap or difference between the demand for information by the BU- 94 Kilika Mutua /International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Vol 2, No 3, 2013 ISSN: 2147-4486 manager and the supply of information by the BU-controller. This gap can be explained by the differences between the sender and the receiver, by role theory, the interpersonal relationships, and the differences between BU-manager’s – and BU-controller’s personality and expectations (Kahn et al. 1964). The contingency factors which influence the demand- side are related to: corporate management, environment, business, corporate controller characteristics, and manager’s expectations and expertise. 2. 1. 6 Institutional theory According to Dillard et al. (2004,p. 08), â€Å"an institution is an established order comprising rule-bounded and standardized social practices, and institutionalization is the process whereby the practices expected in various social settings are developed and learned. † Further, institutional theory is chiefly concerned with an organization’s interaction with the institutional environment, the impacts of external expectations on the organization, and the combination of these expe ctations as reflected in the organizational practices (Martinez, 1999). Hence, under this theory, organizations A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs Essay Example A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs Paper Keywords: Environmental Conservation; Local authorities; Environmental costs 0 201 3 Published by SUBNET 1 . Introduction This paper investigates the environmental conservation costs by local authorities in Kenya. Environmental conservation cost refers to the investment and costs measured in monetary values, allocated for prevention, reduction, and or avoidance of environmental impact, removal of such impact, restoration following the occurrences of a disaster and other activities. These are costs borne by companies and organizations for environmental conservation I. . Private costs. The costs do not include costs borne for health damage or environmental pollution suffered by third parties or society as a whole resulting from the business activities of companies and other organizations I. E. Social costs. It means the burden placed upon society as a result of the environmental impact Of a specific company or other organizations, or Of an unspecified entity. Social cost is also referred to as external cost or external discover/ such as damage suffered by a third party or damage caused to forests or agriculture due to environmental impact resulting from the cuisines activities of a company or other organization will not result in a direct economic burden for that company provided that there is no proof of causal relationship but the society as a whole may be considered to have sustained a loss Medley (1997). We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of the Environmental Conservation Costs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Environmental conservation cost can be categorized into one, business area costs which are costs for activities to reduce environmental impact which occur within the business area due to key business operations. The business area is the region where the organization can directly manage environmental impacts. Business area cost s associated with environmental conservation is divided into pollution prevention cost, global environmental cost and resource recycling cost. Secondly, administration cost which is the cost for management activities conducted by companies and other organizations for environmental conservation activities. The cost includes the cost for efforts that directly contribute to reducing the environmental impact generated through business activities, and the cost for efforts for communication a Corresponding author. Kali Samuel, Tell. : +020 086 808. 89 Kali Mutual International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Volvo 2, No , 2013 SIGNS 2147-4486 with society by companies and other organizations, like the cost for environmental training for employees, cost for environmental improvement activities such as nature conservation, greening, and beautification. Thirdly, environmental remediation costs. These are costs allocated for recovery Of the environmental degradation due to business activities like the cost to restore natural environment back to its original state, provision or insurance fees to cover degradation to the environment. Fourth, social activity cost which is a cost related to environmental conservation conducted for the good f the broad range of society Gulch (2000). This is considered a cost for environmental conservation efforts consisting of social activities with no direct relationship to the business activities of the company or other organizations like cost for environmental activities like planting of greenery, beautification and landscape preservation. Fifth is the RD cost which constitutes spending for research and development activities allocated to environmental conservation. Lastly are the upstream/ downstream costs. Upstream cost is a cost for efforts to reduce the environmental impact that is reared prior to the input of goods and services into business areas, as well as the cost related to such efforts I. E. Provision of materials for goods and services. Downstream cost is a cost for efforts to reduce the environmental impact that is created after goods and services have been output from business areas, as well as the cost related to such efforts I. E. Use and consumption of goods and services Medley (1997). The study seeks to determine environmental costs by local authorities in Kenya. The study acts as an exploratory on environmental accounting forming a basis for further search and illustrate important findings for the groups including the local authorities in Kenya and the stakeholders of local authorities like consumers of their services, business partners, investors, employees of particular local authorities and the residents. The local authorities can be able to establish the benefits they get from environment conservation as well as the costs of undertaking environmental activities, utter researchers, local government of Kenya as well as other scholars. . Literature Review The section presents both theoretical (untested) as well as empirical (tested) literature relevant to he subject of study. Accounting for environmental costs and performance can support a companys / organizations development and operation of an overall environmental management system. Understanding the environmental costs and performance of processes and products can promote more accurate costing and pricing of products and can aid organizations in the design of more environmentally preferable processes, products and services for the future. Better management of environmental costs can result in improved environmental performance and significant benefits to human health as well as business success. The disclosure of environmental accounting regarding environmental conservation activities of companies and other organizations, including public interest organizations and local public entities, provides a means for stakeholders to understand, evaluate, and give their support to such efforts. Environmental accounting continues to take root as part of the social system. Taking into account, developments in environmental accounting at companies and other organizations, it has the objective of supporting the introduction and implementation of environmental accounting at companies and other organizations. Environmental accounting is also intended to insure that the information disclosed takes into consideration the needs of the various stakeholders. Another objective is to improve the effectiveness of environmental accounting methodology, so that by employing given guidelines in organizing environmental accounting data, companies and other organizations can monitor their data not only for publication, but also further their objective of internal environmental management (Bailey, 1991). The quantitative management of environmental conservation activities is an effective way of achieving and maintaining sound business management. In other words, in carrying out environmental conservation activities, a company or Other organizations can accurately identify and measure investments and costs related to environmental conservation activities, and can prepare and analyze this data. By having better insight into the potential benefits of these investments and costs, the company can not only improve the efficiency of its activities, but also utilize environmental accounting as a discipline which plays a very important role in supporting rational decision-making. In addition, companies and other organizations are required to have accountability to takeovers, such as consumers, business partners, investors, employees, local residents, and administration, when utilizing environmental resources, I. E. Public goods, for their business activities. Disclosure of environmental accounting information is a key process in performing accountability. Consequently, environmental accounting helps companies and other organizations boost their public trust and confidence and are associated with receiving a fair assessment (Lehman, 2000). The functions of environmental accounting are divided into internal and external functions. As one step of an organizations environmental information system, internal function makes it possible to manage environmental conservation cost and analyze the cost of environmental conservation activities versus the benefit obtained, and promotes effective and 90 Kali Mutual [International Journal of Finance Banking Studies Volvo 2, No 3, 2013 SINS: 2147-4486 efficient environmental conservation activities through suitable decision- making. It is desirable for environmental accounting to function as a business management tool for use by managers and related business units. On the other hand, by disclosing the quantitatively measured results of its environmental conservation activities, external functions allow an organization to influence the decision-making of stakeholders, such as consumers, business partners, investors, local residents, and administration. It is hoped that the publication of environmental accounting results will function both as a means for organizations to fulfill their responsibility for accountability to stakeholders and, simultaneously, as a means for appropriate evaluation of environmental conservation activities (Lehman, 2000). Local authorities in Kenya are the bodies controlling local governance in Kenya. Local Authorities in Kenya are governed by the local government Act cap 265 laws of Kenya. Kenya has 1 75 local authorities which are categorized into city councils, town councils, municipal councils and county councils. The Act spells out wide ranging powers and functions for local authorities, where most of these functions undertaken by the local authorities relate to provision of public services, promotion of good governance and simulation of good economic growth. The functions and responsibilities cover basic services such as markets, garbage collection, street lighting maintenance, velveteen planning, roads, sewerage, community welfare, slaughterhouses and burial of destitute people. There are also provisions of health to the community through health centers as well as dispensaries. Besides health facilities the council provides housing, schools and recreational facilities and maintenance of parks (Local government Act caps 265 laws of Kenya). Local authorities get their funding from the local authorities transfer fund (LATA) which is a block grant that transfers 5% of the national income to the local authorities. It distribution is SSH 1. 5 million to ACH of the 175 local authorities in Kenya (per annum). This is 60% in proportion to the total population of each local authority, 40% in proportion to the urban population of each local authority. The second source of funds is road maintenance levy fund (ARMFUL) which is collected from fuel levy on petroleum products and transit toll collections. The third source of funds is the contribution in lieu of rates (COLOR) which a local tax levied on property like land by the local authority as authorized by the central government . ML Circular (2009). Machined (2009) in his study on local government processes ND the environment in Africa stated that by and large, the conventional planning approaches have either ignored or underestimated the growing environmental concerns. The search for planning responses to the devastating environmental concerns has culminated in the assembly of an environmental tool box containing an assortment of instruments notably, pop Elution control and licensing, Environmental Impact Assessments (Eels), natural resource management plans and environmental auditing. Most of these instruments are quasi-planning in nature normally deployed to complement the conventional land-use planning tools but largely outside the rotational planning practice. This points out that, in the mainstream planning activities, the emerging environmental management specializations have increasingly drifted apart theoretically, legally, administratively and in their specific responses to environmental problems. The irony of this compartmentalizing is that urban planning largely grew out of the pragmatic concerns for the health of citizens and their social well-being in the wake of the industrialization cities of the nineteenth century. The growing magnitude of the negative environmental concerns impacting sustainable urban development must be redressed by personalizing the symbiotic relationships between urban development and environmental management through the application of the relevant planning instruments. In the study by Kappa (2005) on Lesotho local government system, he stated that there was need for control of natural resources like sand and stones as well as environmental protection like pollution land/site allocation, water supply and market provision. Indention (2005) in the review of local government financing in Ireland, stated that environmental protection expenditure was 695. 2 million which was 19. % Of the total expenditure for 2004 and that water supply and sewerage consumed 450. 6 million which was 12. % of the total expenditure giving evidence that governments are responding to environmental challenges. Local studies on environment accounting have been done. UNDO (2000) on its study on millennium development goals in Kenya stated that the current needs assessment recommended that it would take SSH to develop and implement a strategy for integrating principles and practices of environmental accounting within and /or alongside the system of national accounting (SAN) even if on a pilot basis. Ministry of youth affairs (2010) on environmental and social management framework (SAME) stated that one of the key environmental and social issues in Kenya is health and environment and further explains that most of the urban areas in Kenya are faced by domestic waste and sewage management problems with only 32 out of the 1 75 local authorities having any form of sewage collection and disposal infrastructure. Enema (2005) in its strategic plan for 2005-2010 stated that there was lack of sewerage system and facilities for 143 out of 175 local authorities which led to increased cases of environmental health robbers due to 91 pollution of the ecosystem by heavy metals and chemicals such as nitrates. Wean and Mutual (2007) in their study on e-governance in local authorities in Kenya stated that the LAYOFFS is limited to financial management and has only three main components, revenues, budgeting and financial management and expenditure, a study that fails to mention environmental accounting issues. According to Kibitz (2004), Environmental costs are obscured in conventional accounts and yet they are real costs that should be accommodated by all firms and industries. Management of the environmental costs will result in improved environment, production and generally wealth of the urban population in the study area. This study would also argue for a clearer policy of the management of extractive industries and any other industry that largely tends to exploit natural resources. This will also contribute to the sustainability of the growth and development of not only the urban regions but also the rural. Being a pioneering study on one of the industries in an urban centre, other studies covering the various industries and regions will be encouraged. It is the ultimate purpose of this duty to have other studies expanded to include all firms and sectors in the economy. To arrive at aggregates for the whole economy it is important to begin with the microeconomic production units. In his studies Hosannas (1996) stated that in the coming decades, the continued urban population growth and especially the continued growth of the urban poor was expected to immensely challenge global sustainability. As at 2001, there were 43 cities in Africa with populations of more than one million and it is expected to increase to almost 70 by 201 5 (UNPIN, 2001 Nassau would be among these ties. More problems of overcrowding, informal settlements, inadequate housing, poor infrastructure etc. Are bound to increase. Infrastructural development has been slow in keeping pace with burgeoning needs of the urban population. Since most urban environmental problems result from poor management, poor planning and absence of coherent urban policies (Hosannas, 1996); it is important that these dimensions be addressed in all sectors of the urban domain. Another study by Hosannas (2003) stated that the conventional national accounting systems, excludes: domestic production; reduces directly extracted from communal resources for household consumption and not traded in the market, and; benefits from ecological services, cultural, aesthetic, etc. Though GAP included income from extracted resources corresponding value of these assets lost to the economy was omitted. Depletion of natural and human capital was excluded from total national wealth of a nation and hence the measures of economic performance were wrong and misleading. Daly (1996) explained clearly that sustainable development sought to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations. In other words, the present generation must leave the air, water and natural resources as pure and unpolluted as when it found it. Strong sustainability clarifies that in the case of renewable resources annual off-take must be kept equal to the annual growth increment while in the case of nonrenewable depletion should be at a rate equal to the development of renewal substitutes. That meant that stock of natural capital should not be reduced below a level that generated sustained yield unless good substitutes were then available. Hosannas (2003) stated that sustainable development therefore, had to be financed in such a manner as to compensate for future depletion of exhaustible resources. He gave the example where policies had ensured sustainability from mining in South Africa, where the capital component (C) was fully reinvested in alternative forms of capital Hosannas (2002). According to Disgusts and Male, the correct index of checking if development is sustainable is wealth. When accounting prices that reflect trade-offs among present and future well- beings and among contemporaries are used to determine well-being, wealth becomes a good index for showing whether development is sustainable or not. Poverty causes a society to elk out living through adverse exploitation of resources and this is the state of the populations in the Less Developed Countries (Olds) (Disgusts Male, 1995). Accounting for externalities has been adopted in the microeconomic level within the firm in hydroelectricity (EPA 1996), health sector (EPA 2000), chemical and oil companies (EPA AAA) and electroplating operations (ERA, 1 Bibb) among others. The studies sampled, applied various environmental accounting techniques to evaluate environmental costs of economic activities in an industry. The results showed existence of positive environmental costs in all cases with an implication that most economics activities have environmental costs which are yet to be accounted for. Enema (2005), in its report stated that there were challenges that led to unsuitable management practices of ecosystems and their inherent biodiversity. Increased slum settlement in urban areas due to rapid rural-urban migration resulting in environmental problems of overcrowding, poor garbage disposal and environmental diseases like cholera, dysentery and typhoid. Kisser (1999) in his studies on local government planning and management stated that there were increased environmental pollution and degradations resulting from uncontrolled industrial smoke-emissions, discharge of untreated industrial effluent into rivers, dumping of toxic waste and deforestation of peer-urban woodlands. 92 In the annual report by the ministry of petroleum, the Egyptian general petroleum corporation(2000) stated that natural resource damages is a new category of environmental liability which had been established in the United States according to a number of regulatory such as the clean water Act and the oil pollution Act. Such resources include flora, fauna, land, air, and water sources. The liability can arise from accidental release as well as lawful release to air, water, and soil. As a result there was a wide range of environmental expenditures such as abatement costs, elimination costs and handling of waste costs just to mention but a few, as well as environmental capital expenditures as a result of buying a new and/ or new cleaner technology. Goals such as environmental costs optimization, better environmental performance, identifying the true (full) costs and identifying the social costs all require knowing the different current and potential costs. However the study further stated that knowing the environmental costs depended upon the organizational purpose for using such data like cost allocation, capital budgeting, product design and all that managerial decisions . He report ends by stating that the domain and scope of applying the costs if sometimes to be vague whether the costs are environmental or not. SETAE (1993) on its report on a multi-disciplinary approach to solving problems of the impact of chemicals and technology in the environment stated that some companies were paying a significant portion of their total environmental costs o clean up pollution caused decades before like remediation costs related to superfine only being incurred by then but pertained Of decades before that time. Due to the fact that the corporate environmental expenditures being often substantial, including them in the product costs affected the profitability of the products, facilities and divisions. Many companies according to the report include current operating costs pertaining to past environmental liabilities in their current product costs with the justification ,other expenses that created future benefits were charged to product costs or corporate overhead, including product development,research and development, and advertising expenses. Thus, current products benefited from those prior expenditures and the product costs must bear the costs related to prior production, just as it reaps the benefits. Therefore, from the above studies it is apparent that organizations are involved in environmental conservation costs and local authorities in Kenya are such kind of organizations that have both direct and indirect interactions with the immediate environment, thus, local authorities must incur environmental conservation costs. The studies mint out that there is need to find out the various environmental conservation costs local authorities in Kenya go through. 2. 1 Accounting Theory The accounting theory has evolved through a long passage of time during which substantial changes in human behavior and market structures have taken place. The theory outlines how accountants have identified certain broad assumptions on which financial results of a business are prepared . These assumptions are called accounting concepts which define the rules under which financial statements of an entity should be prepared. The theory rings out boundary rules like entity, periodicity and going concern concepts to determine what should and should not be reported. Once the boundary is set, it should then determine how the accounting data should be recorded I. E. Money measurement, historical cost, realization accruals, matching, duality and materiality. The theory limits the room for individual maneuvers, a number of ethical rules like prudence, consistence and objectivity have evolved, which suggest that there is a moral dimension in financial reporting. . 1. 1 Green budgeting theory (in Environmental accounting in local overspent) It is by initiative of the local Agenda 21 (ALAI after the ROI summit (1992) and the Johannesburg summit (2002) that schemes of environmental accounting at sub-national levels of government started to be developed: a bottom-up approach. , source of a large diversity of initiatives, in contrast to the top-down approach followed by nationals statistics offices coordinated, in ad dition, by supranational organizations such as the United Nations and Rheostat. Amidst the consequent fragmentation of local experiences, the only exception is the Gobbet scheme, promoted by the International Council for Environmental Initiative (ICICLE), which has been implemented in more or less the same form by a few local governments in several countries. Its basic idea is to implement a budgeting system for natural resources that conforms to the community financial budgeting: the current institutions and procedures must provide the model for the budgeting of natural resources. It is based on environmental indicators and as such it does not aim to provide a monetary evaluation of the environment, or to maintain long term, detailed and systematic accounts to be used in logic design and programming. Rather, its purpose is to help monitoring the effectiveness of local governments in achieving the set targets in matter of environmental policy, and communicating objectives, achievements or failures between policy makers and citizens. In principle, the objective could be more ambitious: inserting environmental issues on the political agenda not in an ad hoc manner but rather as systematic reporting to the 93 city/local council. The environmental master budget should confront the highest council decision-making committee with environmental and sustainable development issues. Local authorities should be able to predict, plan, control, monitor and report the consumption Of natural resources, as part of their environmental management activities as called by the Labor Charter (1994), the Lisbon Action Plan (1996) and the Hanover Conference (2000). However, for these reasons, the potential of environmental accounting as an aid to economic programming and decision making, in general and at the local level in particular, is still largely neutralized. One of the features of environmental budgeting, as has been implemented, is legibility in the choice of indicators a choice that reflects, case by case, the interests and criticalness of specific local jurisdictions.

Prehistoric Life During the Devonian Period

Prehistoric Life During the Devonian Period From a human perspective, the Devonian period was a crucial time for the evolution of vertebrate life: this was the period in geological history when the first tetrapods climbed out of the primordial seas and began to colonize dry land. The Devonian occupied the middle part of the Paleozoic Era (542-250 million years ago), preceded by the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods and followed by the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Climate and Geography The global climate during the Devonian period was surprisingly mild, with average ocean temperatures of only 80 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit (compared to as high as 120 degrees during the preceding Ordovician and Silurian periods). The North and South Poles were only marginally cooler than the areas closer to the equator, and there were no ice caps; the only glaciers were to be found atop high mountain ranges. The smallish continents of Laurentia and Baltica gradually merged to form Euramerica, while the giant Gondwana (which was destined to break apart millions of years later into Africa, South America, Antarctica, and Australia) continued its slow southward drift. Terrestrial Life Vertebrates. It was during the Devonian period that the archetypal evolutionary event in the history of life  took place: the adaptation of lobe-finned fish to life on dry land. The two best candidates for the earliest tetrapods (four-footed vertebrates) are Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, which themselves evolved from earlier, exclusively marine vertebrates like Tiktaalik and Panderichthys. Surprisingly, many of these early tetrapods possessed seven or eight digits on each of their feet, meaning they represented dead ends in evolution since all terrestrial vertebrates on earth today employ the five-finger, five-toe body plan. Invertebrates. Although tetrapods were certainly the biggest news of the Devonian period, they werent the only animals that colonized  dry land. There was also a wide array of small arthropods, worms, flightless insects and other pesky invertebrates, which took advantage of the complex terrestrial plant ecosystems that started to develop at this time to gradually spread inland (though still not too far away from bodies of water). During this time, though, the vast bulk of life on earth lived deep in the water. Marine Life The Devonian period marked both the apex and the extinction of the placoderms, prehistoric fish characterized by their tough armor plating (some placoderms, such as the enormous Dunkleosteus, attained weights of three or four tons). As noted above, the Devonian also teemed with lobe-finned fish, from which the first tetrapods evolved, as well as relatively new ray-finned fish, the most populous family of fish on earth today. Relatively small sharkssuch as the bizarrely ornamented Stethacanthus and the weirdly scaleless Cladoselachewere an increasingly common sight in the Devonian seas. Invertebrates like sponges and corals continued to flourish, but the ranks of the trilobites were thinned out, and only the giant eurypterids (invertebrate sea scorpions) successfully competed with vertebrate sharks for prey. Plant Life It was during the Devonian period that the temperate regions of the earths evolving continents first became truly green. The Devonian witnessed the first significant jungles and forests, the spread of which was aided by the evolutionary competition among plants to gather as much sunlight as possible (in a dense forest canopy, a tall tree has a significant advantage in harvesting energy over a tiny shrub). The trees of the late Devonian period were the first to evolve rudimentary bark (to support their weight and protect their trunks), as well as robust internal water-conduction mechanisms that helped to counteract the force of gravity. The End-Devonian Extinction The end of the Devonian period ushered in the second great extinction of prehistoric life on earth, the first being the mass extinction event at the end of the Ordovician period. Not all animal groups were affected equally by the End-Devonian Extinction: reef-dwelling placoderms and trilobites were especially vulnerable, but deep-sea organisms escaped relatively unscathed. The evidence is sketchy, but many paleontologists believe that the Devonian extinction was caused by multiple meteor impacts, debris from which may have poisoned the surfaces of lakes, oceans, and rivers.